Ecology

Ecology research covering ecosystems, vegetation and the landscape of the natural resource sector informs forest management, through increased understanding of relationships of living organisms and their physical environments at multiple levels from forest stands to broad regions. 

A Field Guide to Ecosystem Classification and Identification for the Southern Thompson–Okanagan - LMH76

Between 1990 and the present, more than 10000 plots from additional BEC sampling, terrestrial ecosystem mapping and predictive ecosystem mapping (PEM) projects, SIBEC, and other projects have been added to the provincial BEC database. These new data facilitate improved descriptions of existing units and support the establishment of both new subzones/variants and new site series. Draft BEC field guide materials were produced in 2005 for almost all BEC units to meet the needs of several PEM projects in the Thompson–Okanagan Region. The 2005 draft classification was not correlated at a provincial level to ensure that the classification matched the provincial BEC system, and it lacked management interpretations, so users were still required to use the 1990 classification for species selection, stocking standards, and  SIBEC productivity estimates. This guide is a revised and correlated update to the southern portion of the Thompson–Okanagan Region.

A Field Guide to Ecosystem Classification and Identification:  Boundary–Eastern Okanagan–Shuswap– Southern Arrow - LMH75

The first ecosystem sampling by the Ministry of Forests was initiated in southeast British Columbia in the late 1970s and early 1980s. Since that time, extensive ecological sampling has been conducted, and reports, maps, and field guides that describe the biogeoclimatic and site units have been produced. Field sampling and data analysis resulted in successive approximations of ecosystem classifications for the Nelson Forest Region (Utzig 1978; Utzig et al. 1986; Braumandl and Curran 1992; Braumandl and Dykstra 2005) and Kamloops Forest Region (Lloyd et al. 1990). Additional field sampling also led to a series of changes in biogeoclimatic mapping (as published in previous BEC mapping versions). Previous BEC work provided an excellent foundation and significantly informed the development of the revised classification presented in this guide. The materials in this field guide reflect the first broad-scale, major change in BEC site series for the field guide area since the early 1990s when Lloyd et al. (1990) and Braumandl and Curran (1992) published field guides for the former Kamloops and Nelson Forest Regions. Since that time, the availability of plot data has increased by more than an order of magnitude, and mapping software has improved greatly. This includes targeted sampling for BEC classification as well as extensive field data collected as part of Terrestrial Ecosystem Mapping (TEM), Predictive Ecosystem Mapping (PEM), 1 Resources are available on Ministry websites. 4 Land Management Handbook 75 and SIBEC projects. 

A Field Guide to Ecosystem Classification and Identification for Southeast British Columbia: The East Kootenay - LMH71

This field guide presents site classification and identification information for ecosystems of the East Kootenay, following the Biogeoclimatic Ecosystem Classification (BEC) system (described in Chapter 2). It is part of a four volume series for southeast British Columbia that updates the biogeoclimatic and site classification previously published for the former Nelson Forest Region (Braumandl and Curran 1992; Braumandl and Dykstra 2005) and for parts of the former Kamloops Forest Region (Lloyd et al. 1990). The areas covered in this volume are shown in Figure 1.1, and include the eastern slopes of the Purcell Mountains, the southern Rocky Mountain Trench, and the Rocky Mountains from the United States border to the Kicking Horse River. The area corresponds to much of the Cranbrook and Invermere Timber Supply Areas (TSAs), the southern extent of the Golden TSA, large areas of Tree Farm Licence 14, and most of Kootenay and Yoho National Parks.

An Analysis of a Site Index – Biogeoclimatic Ecosystem Classification (SIBEC) Analysis - TR127

The Site Index – Biogeoclimatic Ecosystem Classification (SIBEC) model allows site index, which is a measure of site productivity, to be estimated from Biogeoclimatic Ecosystem Classification site series and species. SIBEC site index estimates and their standard errors are published online; however, a simplistic approach to calculating these standard errors was taken. New growth intercept models were developed from stem analysis data and were applied to SIBEC data collected in the Coastal Western Hemlock biogeoclimatic zone, very dry maritime subzone, 01 site series (CWHxm2/01) for Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco var. menziesii). A more appropriate approach to calculating the standard error of the mean site index estimate was derived and applied to the SIBEC data. The formula for the standard error requires knowledge of the covariances between growth intercept model predictions, which are unknown except when only one model is used to make the predictions. The results indicated that the corrected standard errors were substantially lower than the standard errors calculated using the current method. A typical SIBEC site index estimate is made up of data from growth intercept models, site index models, and stem analysis. Combining these data sources greatly complicates the standard error calculations, which makes their computation even more difficult than when only growth intercept models are used to estimate site index.

Interaction between Douglas-fir Regeneration and Frost in Central British Columbia - TR118

In the Sub-Boreal Spruce dry warm (SBSdw) biogeoclimatic subzone, on the Interior Plateau of British Columbia, frost is a limiting factor for the establishment and growth of Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) in clearcuts. A replicated research trial, using a uniform shelterwood silvicultural system, involved harvesting in three passes over a 20-year period to test how residual basal area retention affected establishment, growth, and condition of natural regeneration. Starting with even-aged stands of mature Douglas-fir averaging 61 m2 /ha, a preparatory cut in 1991 resulted in 40 m2 /ha retention, which was followed by a regeneration cut in 2001 that reduced the basal area to 20 m2 /ha. Final harvesting took place in 2011, which reduced the basal area of mature trees to 0 m²/ha in the previously uncut control and shelterwood treatments. Microclimate monitoring stations were installed at three research sites in 2012 and were monitored for 5 years to compare vertical air temperature profiles in the former 60 m2 /ha uncut controls (60) and in the former 20 m2 /ha shelterwoods (20) at each site.

A Field Guide to Ecosystem Classification and Identification for Southeast British Columbia:  The South-Central Columbia Mountains - LMH70

In the early 2000s, Dennis Lloyd re-initiated broad-scale BEC revision in the Southern Interior, with extensive work completed both in the overlap BEC units between the Thompson Okanagan and Kootenay-Boundary, and in the Rocky Mountain Trench. Thousands of plots were collected by: Scott Black, Nicole Brand, Mona Doney, Vanessa Larson, Jessica MacDonald, and Mike Ryan. These data have been essential in improving ecosystem classification and descriptions, and in bringing the site classification and biogeoclimatic mapping into alignment across regional boundaries. The colossal effort put forward by Dennis Lloyd, Mike Ryan, and their crews has been fundamental to the production of this field guide. The rejuvenation of the Kootenay BEC program took flight in 2007 and has led to this field guide. From field planning to sampling, analysis, and review, this guide would not have been possible without the extensive contributions of Tom Braumandl, Gareth Kernaghan, and Evan McKenzie, with iv field expertise from Derek Marcoux and Mike van Wijk. Field work was always a lot of fun with our exceptional summer students, including Nola Flaws, Kira Hoffman, Bree Mathewman, and Kara Pitman. Will MacKenzie was also instrumental in providing field support throughout the program.

Stand Dynamics after Partial Cutting in Dry Douglas-fir Forests in Central British Columbia Farwell Canyon Research Project - TR100

The Farwell Canyon project was established within two Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) stands in the Very Dry Mild Interior Douglas-fir (IDFxm) biogeoclimatic subzone in the Cariboo Region, British Columbia in 2001. The project goals were to improve forage for wildlife and livestock (i.e., increase vascular plant cover), improve the growth of the residual stand by reducing inter-tree competition, shift the plant community composition to one that is more typical of open forest condition, and improve the resiliency of the stand to catastrophic fire. From a timber management perspective, the goal was to increase individual tree growth by logging and thinning while maintaining overall stand-level growth. To achieve these goals, treatment combinations of modified" logging, pre-commercial thinning, and burning were applied to return the forest to a more open condition that is typical of Douglas-fir forest adjacent to grassland in the IDFxm.

Assessment of stand structure, growth, and regeneration 10-14 years after harvesting in the pilot project provided trends and probable outcomes of the management options tested.

Effect of Time Trends in Tree Dominance on Site Height and Site Index - EN117

Data from the Site Index – Biogeoclimatic Ecosystem Classification (sibec) project show that estimated site index declines with breast height age for some species. Since the true site index should be independent of age, this trend requires some investigation. This project looks at the effect of time trends in tree dominance (based on tree diameter) on site height and site index. Experiment ep1065 provided Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii) data and a young stand monitoring sample provided data for lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta var. latifolia) and interior spruce (Picea glauca×P. engelmannii). Site height and site index both declined slightly as the stand aged, but not enough to cause the amount of decline noted with these data and elsewhere. As this analysis is not definitive, further work on this issue should be considered.

Establishment of an Interdisciplinary Project to Evaluate Ecological Implications of Climate Change in Dry South Coast Forest Ecosystems - TR86

Climate change is anticipated to alter the species composition, distribution, and productivity of forest ecosystems. In 2010, we established a research project to evaluate ecological attributes of sites with different relative soil moisture and nutrient (site) conditions and subregional climates. The project focused on dry south coast forests of British Columbia, including the Coastal Douglas-fir moist maritime (CDFmm) and Coastal Western Hemlock very dry maritime (CWHxm) Biogeoclimatic Ecosystem Classification (bec) subzones on southeast Vancouver Island. This research is directed toward refining and quantifying a conceptual model of ecosystem function across spatial scales, establishing hypotheses regarding ecosystem change with projected climate shift, and identifying effective field indicators of climate change and its impacts on structure, species composition, and function in these forests. We initially developed a set of hypotheses regarding key drivers of current ecosystem function in the CDFmm landscape and the relationships by which climate affects species composition and structural attributes in these forests. 

A Field Guide to Ecosystem Classification and Identification for Haida Gwaii - LMH68

This field guide presents site classification and identification information for ecosystems of Haida Gwaii (Queen Charlotte Islands), British Columbia, following the Biogeoclimatic Ecosystem Classification (BEC) system (described in Chapter 2).

The objectives of this classification are as follows:

• to provide a framework for organizing ecological information and management experience about ecosystems;
• to promote a better understanding of ecosystems and their interrelationships;
• to provide resource managers with a common language to describe ecosystems; and
• to improve the users' ability to prescribe and monitor site-specific treatments.

For Haida Gwaii, this field guide replaces the previously published site identification field guide for the Vancouver Forest Region (Green and Klinka 1994). The classification presented in this guide differs from previous classifications in several important ways:

• a new Haida Gwaii variant of the Coastal Western Hemlock Very Wet Hypermaritime subzone (CWHvh3) is described, and replaces the CWHvh2 on Haida Gwaii;
• the variants of the Mountain Hemlock Wet Hypermaritime subzone (MHwh) that were previously called Windward and Leeward variants (MHwh1 and MHwh2, respectively) are treated as a single subzone (MHwh) specific to Haida Gwaii;
• the mapping of biogeoclimatic units has been revised for Haida Gwaii: the CWHvh3/CWHwh1 boundary has been moved eastwards on northwestern Graham Island, and numerous other minor boundary and elevational shifts have been made;
• the alpine of Haida Gwaii has been designated as the Coastal Mountain-heather Alpine Wet Hypermaritime subzone (CMAwh);
• new provincial standards for the coding of site units are applied; and
• non-forested ecosystems are described.

Landscape-level Ecological Tree Species Benchmarks Pilot Project: First Approximation Benchmarks in Five British Columbia Timber Supply Areas - TR82

The landscape-level ecological tree species benchmarks pilot project was initiated in 2012 as the next phase of the landscape-level species strategy project (Mah et al. 2012) in support of the Chief Forester’s Future Forest Ecosystems Initiative. This pilot project is an exploration in producing landscape-level ecological tree species benchmarks to aid the development of specific landscape- level tree species targets in five Timber Supply Areas (TSAs) in the Central Interior of British Columbia.

A co-operative inquiry approach was used in three sessions—Williams Lake, Prince George, and Smithers—that engaged individuals from multiple disciplines to produce first approximation landscape-level ecological tree species benchmarks for 35 Biogeoclimatic Ecosystem Classification (BEC) subzones/variants. This process was undertaken with limited data sources and within the context of a changing climate.

The main findings of the report are as follows:

• A methodology was developed for drafting landscape-level ecological tree species benchmarks for a BEC subzone/variant.
• The concept and intended use of the benchmark was articulated. A benchmark represents the desired proportion of tree species for managed stands at the landscape level that would maintain or increase tree species diversity in ecosystems and promote resilient landscapes. The intended use of the benchmark is to provide forest management direction from an ecological perspective within a BEC subzone/variant for the next 10–15 years, with a review approximately every 5 years against actual tree species proportions for managed stands.
• The outcomes of the sessions are dependent on the cross-section of knowledge holders present, the available supporting data, and the geographic and ecological context.
• The benchmarks are presented in two formats—single number and range. The benchmarks from the Williams Lake and Prince George sessions are presented as a range of proportions for a given species (e.g., lodgepole pine, 20–50%). The benchmarks from the Smithers session are presented as a single proportion (e.g., lodgepole pine, 10%).

Biogeoclimatic Ecosystem Classification of Non-forested Ecosystems in British Columbia - TR68

Non-forested ecosystems are an important part of British Columbia’s landscape and biological diversity. Plant community composition and vegetation structure of these ecosystems stand in contrast to the forests that are typical of much of British Columbia. These non-forested habitats supply critical life history requirements for many plant and animal species. Biogeoclimatic Ecosystem Classification (BEC) has been applied extensively in characterizing forested ecosystems in British Columbia. However, the focus has largely been on mature forest stands; non-forested ecosystems have received relatively little classification effort in British Columbia. However, with landscape planning initiatives and extensive ecosystem mapping work over the last decade, the need for a working classification of non-timber-producing ecosystems has become a priority.

The working site units of BEC, site series and site associations, are defined and identified in part by communities of plant species. Therefore, BEC relies on well-trained, knowledgeable users for proper application. The site series defines units that reflect the appropriate level of detail for the goals of forest management. However, for non-timber-producing ecosystems, a broader perspective is often better suited for management applications, and specific species information is less important at this level. A hierarchical classification system that generalizes site associations into functionally broader units requiring less detailed knowledge of species identification would therefore have the double advantage of appropriateness of scale and ease of application by non-technical users. A hierarchy of broader units of this nature for wetlands and related ecosystems is presented in the Wetlands of British Columbia (MacKenzie and Moran 2004). The report that follows formalizes these hierarchical units into the BEC system and extends the system to all naturally occurring non-forested ecosystems in British Columbia, including alpine, subalpine krummholz and shrubland, grassland, rock outcrop and talus, beach and rocky headland, and persistent disclimax ecosystem.

A Field Guide to Ecosystem Identification for the Boreal White and Black Spruce Zone of British Columbia - LMH65

This guide presents site identification information for ecosystems of the Boreal White and Black Spruce (BWBS) biogeoclimatic zone of British Columbia.

The guide has four main goals:
- to present descriptions of British Columbia's boreal ecosystems in a single guide;
- to present a comprehensive revision to the classification of the BWBS;
- to assist the user in classifying sites in the field; and
- to provide insight into common site limitations and potential capabilities related to the ecological conditions of the classified units to assist in preparing management prescriptions.

This guide represents a revision of existing classifications based on additions of new data and an inter-regional correlation of BWBS units. This guide replaces Land Management Handbook (LMH) #22 A Field Guide for Identification and Interpretation of Ecosystems of the Northeast Portion of the Prince George Forest Region (DeLong et al. 1990); the boreal sections of LMH #26, A Field Guide to Site Identification and Interpretation for the Prince Rupert Forest Region (Banner et al. 1993); the BWBSdk1 section in LMH #54, A Field Guide to Site Identification and Interpretation for the North Central Portion of the Northern Interior Forest Region (DeLong 2004); and the Draft Field Guide Insert for Site Identification of Seral Populus Units of the Northeast Portion of the Prince George Forest Region.

New Coding Schemes for Biogeoclimatic Site Units - EN106

This extension note outlines a new standard coding system for site series introduced or revised after March 31, 2010. In addition, coding systems for site units representing non-forested ecosystems and for immature (seral) ecosystems are presented. Four changes are outlined: 1. Site series in reclassified subzones/ variants will be identified by a three-digit rather than two-digit code to reflect classification version. 2. The order in which site series are numbered has been modified. 3. Seral ecosystem units have been assigned a formal coding format. 4. The system for coding wetlands has been extended to other non-forested ecosystem units.

An Analysis of the sibec Site Index Estimates for Douglas-fir in the CWHxm2/01 Site Series - EN96

This extension note summarizes a project that examined which ecological variables can be used to modify the Site Index – Biogeoclimatic Ecosystem Classification (sibec) model (bcmfr 2008) to provide more accurate estimates of site index. The data also provide the opportunity to compare sibec site index estimates based on two different methods of obtaining site index: through stem analysis and by estimating site index from a height-age model. More information about this project can be found in Nigh (2010). The sibec model is an important tool for estimating site index in British Columbia. The model is a correlation of bec site series and tree species site index estimates, and is presented as entries in a table format. A sibec site index estimate is the mean site index for the target species and bec site series. The strength of the sibec model is that site index can be obtained from site series and species regardless of whether site trees are present on the site.

Ecological Resilience and Complexity: A Theoretical Framework for Understanding and Managing British Columbia’s Forest Ecosystems in a Changing Climate - TR55

At global, regional, and local scales, forest managers are faced with unprecedented pressures to supply forest resources for human consumption while still maintaining a diverse array of other ecosystem services essential to human well-being. While this alone has posed major challenges to forest management, global climate change presents a new range of daunting challenges. The potential for major ecosystem changes as well as uncertainties about the degree and rate of climate change necessitates a major shift in thinking about forest management. Recent scientific literature proposes new approaches to forest management that focus on “managing for ecological resilience,” with the idea that it provides a tenable framework for achieving sustainability goals when environments are changing and the future is uncertain. The concept of ecological resilience has been used to guide the management of ecosystems degraded by human land use activities, and managing for resilience is a commonly discussed approach for countering the negative impacts of climate change. This document summarizes the theoretical literature on ecological resilience and complexity, and describes how this evolving body of science can begin to guide the management of forest ecosystems in a changing climate.

Silviculture Treatments for Ecosystem Management in the Sayward (STEMS) - TR49

Silviculture Treatments for Ecosystem Management in the Sayward (STEMS) is a large-scale, multi-disciplinary experiment that compares forest productivity, economics, and public perception of seven silvicultural regimes replicated at three sites in the Sayward Forest.

The STEMS experiment uses silvicultural systems and treatments to create diversity in forest structure that results in a variety of canopy layers (vertical structure) and spatial patchiness (horizontal structure) to enhance biodiversity and wildlife. The STEMS experiment examines seven different treatment regimes: 1. Extended Rotation with Commercial Thinning 2. Clearcut with Reserves 3. Extended Rotation (non-treatment control) 4. Uniform Dispersed Retention 5. Group Selection 6. Modified Patch Cuts 7. Aggregate Retention. These silvicultural regimes create a range of gap sizes and frequencies that emulate natural variation in forest structure.

This Technical Report describes the establishment of the second replication of STEMS starting in 2003 near Elk Bay in the Sayward Forest. Treatment units were harvested in 2005. STEMS 2 stand conditions differ from STEMS 1 with higher densities and proportions of western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla) and moister biogeoclimatic site series. Ongoing studies include:
- Tree growth and stand development, including understorey vegetation
- Regeneration and light availability
- Windthrow, mortality, and coarse woody debris recruitment
- Harvesting production and impacts of residual tree damage and soil disturbance (in partnership with the Forest Engineering Research Institute of Canada [FERIC])
- Visual quality and public response

Results and Data from an Ecological Study of Garry Oak (Quercus garryana) Ecosystems in Southwestern British Columbia - TR43

This report and cd consist of excerpts from my MSc thesis from 1996, covering the context for the study, results and survey data. In the thesis, I sampled the plant communities associated with Garry oak (Quercus garryana) in British Columbia to develop a classification for use in resource management. An overview is included here of a total of 43 plant communities. Descriptions have also been placed on the Web (Erickson 1998) and, with some modification, are presented in a field guide (Erickson and Meidinger 2007). A study of Garry oak ecosystems was compelling, given that they had been designated as critically imperiled in British Columbia. I used quantitative methods as well as subjective assessments to assemble a numerically adequate database, apply a landscape approach, and include wide geographic coverage. Although European phytosociology influenced some facets of my study, my classification is much more strongly related to other plant community research in the Pacific Northwest.

Post-fire Vegetation Development and Fire Effects in the SBS Zone: Haggen Creek, Francis Lake, Genevieve Lake, Brink, and Indianpoint Sites - TR41

The effects of clearcutting and slashburning on vegetation and soil composition and structure were monitored at permanent plots in the Prince George Forest District for up to 10 years post-burn. Changes in floristic composition, percent cover, and height were documented and described for each study area. At each site, standard fire weather stations were used to determine fire weather codes and indices and predict forest floor moisture content. Woody fuel loading and consumption and burn severity were determined using a line-intercept approach in standard fire effects assessment triangles and circular plots. Forest floor consumption, mineral soil exposure, and woody fuel consumption were compared to values predicted by the Prescribed Fire Predictor.

Garry Oak (Quercus garryana) Plant Communities in British Columbia: A Guide to Identification - TR40

This field guide covers the native plant communities with a component of Garry oak (Quercus garryana) in British Columbia. It is a guide to identification of these communities, which can be applied to the woodlands, savannah, meadow, and rock outcrops within and near the zone of influence of oak canopy. The guide does not cover very specific occurrences, such as vernal pools, or the broader set of associated ecosystems that help form the Garry oak landscape. In the background work (Erickson 1996, 1998, 2002b) on which this guide is based, Garry oak ecosystems were interpreted as a climax conditioned by a natural disturbance regime. This would occur within a smaller geographic scale than that addressed by the provincial biogeoclimatic ecosystem classification (BEC). In the BEC context they are placed as seral in comparison to climax Douglas-fir forest on circum-mesic sites, and could possibly be considered as a disclimax. This guide does not focus on management, which is addressed only via rankings and comments under each plant community. We have provided both scientific and common names to meet the diverse interests of guide users.

A Field Guide to Site Identification and Interpretation for the North Central Portion of the Northern Interior Forest Region - LMH54

The classification system used follows the biogeoclimatic ecosystem classification (BEC) developed for the province by the B.C. Ministry of Forests (Pojar et al. 1987). The principles have evolved from the work of V.J. Krajina (1965, 1969) and are described in Section 2. The objectives of this classification are: • to provide a framework for organizing ecological information and management experience about ecosystems;  to promote further understanding of identified ecosystems and the relationships among them;  to supply resource managers with a common language to describe forest sites; and to improve the user’s ability to prescribe and monitor treatment regimes on a site-specific (ecosystem) basis.

Wetlands of British Columbia A GUIDE TO IDENTIFICATION - LMH52

This guide presents a site classification and interpretative information for wetlands and related ecosystems of British Columbia. Site identification is based upon principles of Biogeoclimatic Ecosystem Classification (BEC) modified for wetland ecosystems.

The objectives of the classification are:
- to provide a framework for organizing ecological information and management experience about ecosystems;
- to promote a better understanding of wetlands and related ecosystems;
- to provide users with a common language to describe wetland ecosystems; and
- to provide an ecological basis for management of wetlands.

The Research Branch of British Columbia's Ministry of Forests initiated a program in 1994 to classify and describe the wetlands and riparian areas of British Columbia. Its central intent was to generate basic ecological information about these important ecosystems. This guide represents one aspect of the Wetland and Riparian Ecosystem Classification (WREC) initiative and has two principal goals:
- to assist users in describing and identifying wetland ecosystems; and
- to provide management interpretations to assist in conservation of wetlands ecosystems.

Silviculture Treatments for Ecosystem Management in the Sayward (STEMS): Establishment Report for STEMS 1, Snowden Demonstration Forest - TR17

The STEMS experiment uses silvicultural systems and treatments to create diversity in forest structure that results in a variety of canopy layers (vertical structure) and spatial patchiness (horizontal structure) to enhance biodiversity and wildlife. The STEMS experiment examines seven different treatment
regimes, namely:
- Extended Rotation (non-treatment control)
- Extended Rotation with Commercial Thinning
- Uniform Dispersed Retention
- Aggregate Retention
- Group Selection
- Modified Patch Cuts
- Clearcut with Reserves

These silvicultural regimes create a range of gap sizes and frequencies that emulate natural variation in forest structure.

STEMS is a replication of the "Silvicultural Options for Harvesting Douglas-fir Young-Growth Production Forests" in the Capitol Forest near Olympia, Washington, developed jointly by the managers of the Washington State Department of Natural Resources and the scientists of the Pacific Northwest Research Station. The decision to replicate the treatments in the Sayward Forest was based on the similarity of knowledge gaps in the Sayward Forest and the Capitol Forest and because replication in Washington and British Columbia results in greater statistical power and ability to extrapolate over a wide geographic area.

This technical report describes the establishment of the first replication of STEMS in 2001 in the Snowden Demonstration Forest. Ongoing studies include:
- Tree growth and stand development, including understory vegetation
- Regeneration and light availability
- Windthrow, mortality, and coarse woody debris recruitment
- Harvesting production and impacts of residual tree damage and soil disturbance (in partnership with the Forest Engineering and Research Institute of Canada [FERIC])
- Visual quality and public response

Estimating Historical Variability of Natural Disturbances in British Columbia - LMH53

Natural disturbances are an integral part of the processes shaping and maintaining the forested landscapes in British Columbia. Understanding the historic variability in the frequency, intensity/severity, size, and duration of natural disturbances is important for guiding sustainable forest management and projecting the effects of natural disturbances on habitat and timber supply. This report is composed of four parts: the first three are stand-alone reports, whereas the fourth and final part makes recommendations based on the results of the first three parts. Part 1 presents a concise review of natural disturbance dynamics for each of the 14 biogeoclimatic zones in British Columbia. Part 2 presents 11 methods described in the literature for determining intervals for stand-replacing and stand-maintaining disturbances. Part 3 demonstrates an application of the process outlined in Part 2 for selecting and using one of the methods for determining disturbance intervals in the Arrow Forest District. Part 4 presents our recommendations to address the gaps we identified in research on disturbance dynamics, data collection, and data maintenance, as well as quantitative methods for determining disturbance intervals in British Columbia.

A Field Guide to Site Identification and Interpretation for the Southeast Portion of the Prince George Forest Region - LMH51

The guide has two main goals: • to assist the user in classifying sample sites in the field; and • to provide interpretations for these site units that will assist the user in preparing management prescriptions. This version of the guide results from the recent completion of an inter-regional correlation of the BEC system. The correlation project was completed to ensure the consistency and quality of the ecological information base across the province. This guide replaces the Draft Field Guide Insert for the Identification and Interpretation for the Southeast Portion of the Prince George Forest Region produced in 1996. The Forest Practices Code of BC Act (brought into force on June 15, 1995) requires that a silviculture prescription (SP) be prepared prior to timber harvesting and prior to activities taking place on areas where timber has been cut, removed, damaged, or destroyed by natural causes or by unauthorized harvest. The attendant Operational Planning Regulation requires that the SP specify the BEC and that it be accompanied by a map that illustrates the BEC. In one form or another, this requirement to describe and map the BEC has been a part of silviculture regulations from 1988 to the present. The Silviculture Prescription Guidebook (B.C. Ministry of Forests 2000) provides recommended “best practices” for, among other things, the description and mapping of BEC. The guidebook states, “The silviculture prescription must contain the following ecological information: biogeoclimatic zone(s), subzone(s), variant(s), and phase(s), where applicable and the site series and (where applicable) phase(s)."

Protocol for Accuracy Assessment of Ecosystem Maps - TR11

This report outlines a protocol for assessing the thematic accuracy of large-scale ecosystem mapping (i.e., Predictive and Terrestrial Ecosystem Mapping). The protocol presents a statistically unbiased approach to evaluate the acceptability or accuracy of the mapping. The thematic content of randomly selected map polygons (or small areas) is assessed by various means—the methods varying in precision and objectivity. The protocol requires the development of a sampling plan that articulates decisions about protocol level, sample size, assessment method, target error, etc. Although costly, assessing the accuracy of complex thematic maps is critically important to determining appropriate uses for ecosystem mapping. The approach outlined in this protocol provides a means of obtaining some overall, statistically valid scores to rate the accuracy of TEM, PEM, or other ecosystem maps. The results can be used as a component of quality assurance or for presenting statistics on the accuracy of mapping.

Plant Indicator Guide for Northern British Columbia: the Northern Portion of the MS and ICH Biogeoclimatic Zones - TR10 

This guidebook shows how the distribution of common forest plants changes due to variations in climate, terrain, site, and soil conditions across the northern British Columbia wetbelt and subalpine zones. It will assist foresters and other natural resource managers working work in the field to understand the distribution of species within a subzone and variant. The guide also consolidates information on indicative values of plant species and includes images for quick identification.  

SIBEC Site Index Estimates in Support of Forest Management in British Columbia - TR4

In response to a request by the Chief Forester of British Columbia, we evaluated the accuracy (unbiasedness) of the Site Index by Biogeoclimatic Ecosystem Classification site series (sibec) estimates for use in supporting allowable annual cut (aac) determinations. Using data from the Old Growth Site Index project, we found that the fi rst approximation sibec estimates are less biased than the site index estimates used in the forest inventory for old-growth stands. We therefore concluded that the first and second approximation sibec estimates are suitable for supporting aac determinations and other timber management decisions (such as silvicultural investments). Estimates of site productivity in the second approximation sibec estimates are based on a minimum sample size and have a known level of precision. sibec estimates of productivity are generally higher than inventory estimates of productivity for old-growth stands. Ongoing sibec sampling is required to calibrate the sibec model. This will further improve the quality of the estimates for application in resource management.

The Ecology of Wetland Ecosystems - EN45

This extension note describes the basic ecological features of wetland ecosystems. It is a foundational document that provides important concepts and background information to be applied in future extension notes on wetland management. Major topics and concepts covered in this document are: • definition of a wetland ecosystem and comparison of characteristics with other related ecosystems, • recognition of the different applications of the term “wetland ecosystem” at site and landscape scales, • major environmental factors and their effects on wetland ecosystems, • classification of wetland ecosystems, • successional patterns in wetland ecosystems, • natural disturbance regimes of wetlands, • role of reserves in protecting wetland ecosystems, • regional variation in wetland abundance and characteristics, and • some important management issues for wetland ecosystems in British Columbia.

Plant Indicator Guide for Northern British Columbia: Boreal, Sub-Boreal, and Subalpine Biogeoclimatic Zones - LMH46

The information provided here about the indicator plants will help foresters and natural resource managers determine the moisture and nutrient regimes of different ecosystems, detect where changes between ecosystems occur, and identify site series in the biogeoclimatic ecosystem classification system. The guidebook can also be used in the review or audit of site descriptions to ensure that identification of site series is correct. It is not intended to provide information on plant identification, which is thoroughly covered in local plant identification guidebooks (Pojar et al. 1982; Roberts 1983; Vitt et al. 1988; MacKinnon et al. 1992; Johnson et al. 1995; Parish et al. 1996). Improved identification of ecosystems should result in better management prescriptions and the use of a common language with which to describe the forest.

The Ecology and Silviculture of Bigleaf Maple - EN45

Why Manage for Bigleaf Maple? Recent trends are encouraging greater utilization and management of broadleaf trees, because of increased recognition of their important contributions to the vigour, diversity, and sustainability of British Columbia’s forest ecosystems. Bigleaf maple (Acer macrophyllum Pursh.) is the only tree-size maple in British Columbia, and it is one of five major broadleaf species in the province: aspen, red alder, cottonwood—balsam poplar, paper birch, and bigleaf maple. Bigleaf maple has potential as a commercial tree species and its wood is used for furniture, face veneers, and container construction. Responsible management and utilization of this resource could provide employment opportunities in forestry and value-added sectors. In addition, it is a desirable ecosystem component, adding to the structural and species diversity of British Columbia’s coastal forests. Bigleaf maple’s presence can also lead to improved site productivity, long-term sustainability, and forest health.

Estimating the Abundance of Arboreal Forage Lichens: User’s Guide - LMH43

Arboreal lichens - lichens that grow on trees - are critically important winter forage for caribou in parts of British Columbia. Arboreal lichens grow abundantly on some old trees, but are generally sparse on young trees. Forest managers can make better decisions about whether, where, and how to log in caribou habitat if they have information about the abundance of these lichens. The Field Guide, Estimating the Abundance of Arboreal Forage Lichens, describes a method of estimating lichen abundance on individual trees. The Field Guide presents a series of photos of trees with known amounts of lichen below 4.5 m, which is the part of the tree within reach of caribou in winter. The user compares the tree being assessed to the photos, and scores it as belonging in Lichen Class 0-5. The Field Guide is quick and relatively simple to use, can give similar results when used by different people, and produces assessments that are related to actual lichen biomass.

The Field Guide, however, does not offer direction on how lichen assessments fit into planning and data collection processes. It does not discuss how to sample or what to do with the data collected. This handbook is intended to fill those gaps, and help managers use the Field Guide as a tool for planning in caribou habitat. The Field Guide also has research and inventory applications, and can be used to monitor the effects of forestry practices on lichen abundance.

The Ecology and Silviculture of Bigleaf Maple - EN33

Recent trends are encouraging greater utilization and management of broadleaf trees, because of increased recognition of their important contributions to the vigour, diversity, and sustainability of British Columbia’s forest ecosystems. Bigleaf maple (Acer macrophyllum Pursh.) is the only tree-size maple in British Columbia, and it is one of five major broadleaf species in the province: aspen, red alder, cottonwood—balsam poplar, paper birch, and bigleaf maple. Bigleaf maple has potential as a commercial tree species and its wood is used for furniture, face veneers, and container construction. Responsible management and utilization of this resource could provide employment opportunities in forestry and value-added sectors. In addition, it is a desirable ecosystem component, adding to the structural and species diversity of British Columbia’s coastal forests. Bigleaf maple’s presence can also lead to improved site productivity, longterm sustainability, and forest health.

Site Index Conversion Equations for Mixed Western Hemlock–Amabilis Fir Stands - EN26

Western hemlock-amabilis fir is a common species mixture on the coast of British Columbia. Model development and testing data sets containing site index pairs for hemlock-amabilis fir were compiled. Then, a site index conversion equation was developed and tested.

Landscape Ecology and Connectivity - Part 4 of 7 - EN15

You accidentally unplug the freezer. Labour strife removes buses at rush hour. A violent storm knocks out the telephone lines. A highly disturbed ecosystem loses species to extinction. What do these events have in common? All are examples of systems in which an important connection has been severed. Just like electrical, transportation, or communication systems, the ecological systems composing landscapes require connections to maintain their functionality.
Historically, forest managers viewed the components that make up the landscape as separate, unrelated entities. The emerging discipline of landscape ecology now focuses on the landscape as an interrelated, interconnected whole. Landscape ecologists place a significant emphasis on the connections between landscape elements and their functional roles.

The Forest Practices Code acknowledges the importance of landscape ecology concepts by enabling district managers to designate planning areas called "landscape units," each with specific landscape unit objectives. The Biodiversity Guidebook (B.C. Ministry of Forests and B.C. Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks 1995), a component of the Code, recommends procedures to maintain biodiversity at both landscape and stand levels. These procedures, which use principles of ecosystem management tempered by social considerations, recognize that an important way to meet the habitat needs of forest and range life is to ensure that various habitat types are still connected to each other. By sustaining landscape connections, forest- and range dwelling organisms can continue to spread out and move across and between landscapes.

This Extension Note is the fourth in a series designed to raise awareness of landscape ecology concepts, and to provide background for the ecologically-based forest management approach recommended in the Biodiversity Guidebook. The focus here is on landscape connectivity. We first define and describe connectivity. Then we summarize some of the ecological principles underlying connectivity, and review its role in maintaining the structural integrity of landscapes, the mechanisms that sustain it, and how it relates to biodiversity. We conclude by examining how the concepts of connectivity can be applied at the landscape level.

 A Field Guide to Forest Site Identification and Interpretation for the Cariboo Forest Region - LMH39

This guide consists of seven principal sections plus appendices. Section 2 provides an overview of the BEC system. Section 3 outlines procedures for describing forest sites and identifying biogeoclimatic and site units. It is basically a how-to section. Section 4 provides a brief overview of the environment of the Cariboo Forest Region including physiography and major climate patterns. Section 5 describes the biogeoclimatic units (zones, subzones, and variants) of the Cariboo Forest Region including their distinguishing features. Section 6 describes the forested site units of each biogeoclimatic unit for which a site classification has been completed. It includes keys to site unit identification, edatopic grids, and vegetation and environment summaries. Section 7 summarizes silviculture considerations for site units. It includes ecologically adapted tree species, principal site factors limiting forest regeneration, shrub and herbaceous vegetation potential, and a summary of principles and current experience regarding successful silviculture practices. The appendices include several tools to aid site description and identification, including guides to identification of soil moisture regime, soil nutrient regime, soil texture class, common rock types, and soil humus form.

Spatial Patterns and Landscape Ecology: Implications for Biodiversity - EN14

Spatial patterns? To get a good idea of what we mean by spatial patterns in forested landscapes, bail out of an airplane at 10 000 m over British Columbia on a clear day. As you drift down, you begin to notice patterns in the landscape, a many-hued mosaic of different patches. Splashes of ice and snow top impossibly sharp mountains, branching rivers deeply dissect plateaus, shimmering leaden sheets reveal valley-bottom lakes. Angling down in altitude, you see more detail in the mosaic, especially the different shapes, colours, and textures of the forested patches. Some patches obviously contain clumps of large old-growth trees, some snake linearly, protecting stream waters from your view. Others are bare or, with their slight tinge of green, hold the promise of regrowth. All of these patterns are "spatial" in the sense that they occupy three- dimensional space. The study of spatial landscape patterns is one of the central interests of landscape ecologists. Landscape ecology enlarges our understanding of dynamic ecological patterns, the role of disturbances in ecosystems, and the characteristic spatial and temporal scales of ecological events. The Forest Practices Code acknowledges the importance of landscape ecology concepts by enabling district managers to designate planning areas called landscape units, each with specific landscape unit objectives. The Biodiversity Guidebook (B.C. Ministry of Forests and B.C. Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks 1995), a component of the Code, recommends procedures to maintain biodiversity at both landscape and stand levels. These procedures, which use principles of ecosystem management tempered by social considerations, recognize that an important way to maintain biodiversity at the landscape level is to mimic natural spatial patterns in managed forests.

This extension note is the third in a series designed to raise awareness of landscape ecology concepts and to provide background for the ecologically based forest management approach recommended in the Biodiversity Guidebook. The focus here is on spatial patterns in forested landscapes. We first define basic spatial landscape patterns and describe the "whys and wherefores" of their existence. We then discuss some of the ecological principles underlying spatial pattern development, and review the major spatial processes that can alter landscape patterns and threaten biodiversity. We conclude by examining how these concepts can be applied in landscape-level planning situations.

Landscape Ecology and Natural Disturbances - EN10

Natural disturbance statistics grab your attention:
- Hurricane-force winds flatten over 30 000 ha of forest land on northern Vancouver Island in the winter of 1906.
- Small isolated "hot spots" of mountain pine beetle infestations are detected in southwestern British Columbia in the early 1970s. These infestations irrupt rapidly a decade later into massive outbreaks covering 460 000 ha of lodgepole pine forests.
- Wildfire burns over 348 000 ha of British Columbia's forest land in 1982. One fire alone covers 182 725 ha - more than half of the total area burned.

These extraordinary events can mean different things to different people: a reduced timber harvest, a lost wilderness reserve, an unsightly recreation area. Many of the feelings generated embrace a sense of loss and the belief that nature is on the rampage. But while these scenarios may appear to conflict with and impair a multitude of forest resource values, these natural disturbances show evolution in action and can actually maintain that increasingly precious global treasure-biodiversity. British Columbia's natural ecosystems have all evolved, and are still evolving, under the influence of natural disturbances such as wildfire, wind, and insects (Figure 1, Table 1). To maintain a range of ecosystems and habitats and to maintain biodiversity, a new approach in forest management applies the concepts of landscape and disturbance ecology.

Fire in the Dry Interior Forests of British Columbia - EN8

Fire is a natural ecological process, especially in the dry interior forests. However, fire exclusion by human intervention has changed the situation dramatically. A buildup of fuels over the past 60 years places these forests at greater risk of larger and more intense fires. This research extension note describes forests with frequent stand maintaining surface fires (Natural Disturbance Type 4 in the Biodiversity Guidebook), explains the ecological role of fire and the consequences of its exclusion, presents options for managing these sites, and highlights a few research initiatives under way in the province.

Management Concepts for Landscape Ecology - EN7

The new Forest Practices Code challenges managers of provincial forests to ensure that biological diversity is maintained. The Biodiversity Guidebook (B.C. Ministry of Forests and B.C. Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks 1995) recommends a process to manage for biodiversity within targeted social and economic constraints and provides guidelines for specific stand and landscape attributes. However, it is primarily a “how-to” book for applied landscape ecology, and as such does not dwell on the fundamental scientific concepts of spatial patterns and structures and the functioning of the landscape as an ecosystem.

The Ecological Roles of Wildlife Tree Users in Forest Ecosystems - LMH35

This report synthesizes North American literature about the effects of wildlife tree users on invertebrate and vertebrate pest populations. The feeding habits of 92 species of wildlife tree users in British Columbia are described along with the forest pest species (vertebrate and invertebrate) they prey on. By examining the trophic relationships of wildlife tree users, knowledge of their other ecological roles is gained. These roles are identified and discussed in the context of forest management. Management recommendations and research directions are discussed. Wildlife tree users are arranged into foraging guilds, and studies that investigate the effects of individual species or entire guilds on the abundance and distribution of forest pests are reviewed. These effects are quantified when possible and anecdotal information is presented and discussed for guilds where quantitative studies are lacking. This information is used to evaluate the potential capacity of specific wildlife tree users to regulate forest pests in a density-dependent manner.

A Summary of Western Yew Biology with Recommendations for its Management in British Columbia - LMH32

Considerable interest in western yew (Taxus brevifolia Nutt.) has been sparked by the recently discovered anti-cancer properties of taxol, a chemical extracted from the bark of this conifer. Clinical trials show that taxol is a successful treatment for approximately 30% of women whose ovarian cancers resist conventional therapies (Stone 1993). Taxol also shows promise in treating breast, head, and neck tumors (Stone 1993). These positive results have greatly increased the demand for taxol obtained from wild western yew trees. Scientists do not expect an alternative taxol source to be available on a commercial scale for about three years. Wild western yew trees are a limited resource and are not considered as an option for the long-term supply of taxol. They are small, slow growing, and uncommon relative to other commercial tree species. Furthermore, large quantities of bark are required to produce small quantities of taxol. There is concern that continued reliance on naturally occurring western yew will diminish this resource, jeopardizing the supply of taxol and threatening the species. The effect of western yew harvest on ecosystem structure, function, and diversity is also a concern.

Existing Ministry of Forests policy on resource management dictates that western yew can be harvested in designated areas (i.e., areas approved for harvesting, and other areas, with a free-use permit).

A Field Guide for Site Identification and Interpretation for the Northern Rockies Portion of the Prince George Forest Region - LMH29

This guide presents site identification and interpretation information for forest ecosystems of the Northern Rockies portion of the Prince George Forest Region The classification system used follows the Biogeoclimatic Ecosystem Classification (BEC) developed for the province by the B.C. Ministry of Forests (Pojar et al. 1987). The principles have evolved from the work of V.J. Krajina (1965,1969) and are described in Chapter 2. The objectives of this classification are:

- to provide a framework for organizing ecological information and
- to promote further understanding of identified ecosystems and the
- to supply resource managers with a common language to describe forest
- to improve the user's ability to prescribe and monitor treatment regimes management experience about ecosystems; relationships among them; sites; and on a site-specific (ecosystem) basis.

The guide has two main goals:
- to assist the user in classifying sample sites in the field; and
- to provide interpretations for these site units that will assist the user in preparing management prescriptions.

This version of the guide results from the recent completion of an inter- regional correlation of the BEC system. The correlation project was completed to ensure the consistency and quality of the ecological information base across the province. This guide replaces the following guides for use in the Prince George Forest Region: DeLong et al. (1984) for the SBSmk1 (previously SBSe2); DeLong et al. (1984) for the SBSdw3 (previously SBSk3); DeLong et al. (1985) for the SBSmc3 (previously SBSi); DeLong et al. (1987) for the SBSdw2 (previously SBSk2); and Lewis et al. (1986) for the SBSdk (previously SBSd), SBSmc2 (previously SBSe1), and SBPSmc (previously SBSa2). Appendix 1 presents the correlation between the previous site and biogeoclimatic units and this classification. All sites slated for harvest are required by law under the Silviculture Regulations (1988) to be classified according to the biogeoclimatic classification system.

A Field Guide for Site Identification and Interpretation for the Vancouver Forest Region - LMH28

This guide replaces Site Diagnosis, Tree Species Selection, an Slashburning Guidelines for the Vancouver Forest Region (1984). This revised guide consists of six main sections. Following the Introduction, Section 2 provides an overview of the BEC system. Section 3 outlines procedures for assessing sites. Included is a description of how to describe and analyze environmental and vegetation features of an ecosystem how to identify site series, and how to map sites for management purposes. Section 4 describes the biogeoclimatic units in the Region, emphasizing their distinguishing features. Section 5 provides a synopsis of all site units recognized in the Region, presented with edatopic grids and vegetation summary tables. Management interpretations are provided in Section 6. This includes information on silviculture, harvesting, wildlife and forest health. Finally, several appendices contain more detailed information on indicator plant analysis and site description.

A Field Guide to Site Identification and Interpretation for the Prince Rupert Forest Region - LMH26

This guide presents site identification and interpretation information for forest ecosystems of the Prince Rupert Forest Region (PRFR) (Figure 1.1). Site identification is based on the biogeoclimatic ecosystem classification (BEC) initially developed by Dr. V.J. Krajina at the University of British Columbia and subsequently revised by the B.C. Ministry of Forests. The objectives of this classification are:
- to provide a framework for organizing ecological information and management experience about ecosystems;
- to promote a better understanding of forest ecosystems and their interrelationships;
- to provide resource managers with a common "language" to describe forest sites; and
- to improve the users' ability to prescribe and monitor site-specific treatments.

This guide results from he recently completed provincial correlation of the BEC system. It replaces previously published site identification field guides (a list is provided in Appendix 1,Section 1). Correlation tables of names of classification units used in previous guides and those used in the 1993 guide are provided in Appendix 2.

This guide has two principal goals:
- to assist users in describing and identifying forest ecosystems; and
- to provide management interpretations to assist users in preparing stand-level forest management prescriptions.

Field Manual for Describing Terrestrial Ecosystems - LMH25

This manual has been prepared to assist field surveyors in the completion of the Ecosystem Field Forms, including site, soil, vegetation, mensuration, wildlife habitat assessment, tree attributes for wildlife, and coarse woody debris data forms. These are a series of forms for the collection of ecological data in British Columbia.

The field manual is organized by section - one for each data form. The forms, as a package, are called Ecosystem Field Forms (FS882). The forms can be ordered from Government Publications (1-800-663-6105) and are numbered as follows:

- Site Description/ FS882(1)/ SITE/
- Soil Description/ FS882(2)/ SOIL/
- Vegetation/ FS882(3) / VEG/
- Mensuration/ FS882(4)/ MENS/
- Wildlife Habitat Assessment/ FS882(5)/ WHA/
- Tree Attributes for Wildlife/FS882(6) / TAW/
- Coarse Woody Debris/ FS882(7) / CWD/
- Site Visit/ FS1333/ SIVI/

The forms are designed to be used in various inventories; for example, ecosystem classification, terrestrial ecosystem mapping, and wildlife habitat assessment. Not all the data fields on all the forms will be completed on every sample plot. Rather, project objectives will determine which forms and fields need to be completed. Likewise, project objectives will determine where and how plots are located.

The field manual follows Describing Ecosystems in the Field (Luttmerding et al. 1990) and the Field Manual for Describing Terrestrial Ecosystems (Province of British Columbia 1998); however, it has been updated to accommodate new field forms and updates to code standards and inventory requirements. The forms evolved from the B.C. Ministry of Forests and Range Ecological Classification Reconnaissance Form, the larger, more detailed forms in Luttmerding et al. (1990), and the Vegetation Resource Inventory forms (Resources Inventory Committee 1997).

A Field Guide for Site Identification and Interpretation for the Southwest Portion of the Prince George Forest Region - LMH24

This guide presents site identification and interpretation information for forest ecosystems of the southwest portion of the Prince George Forest Region The classification system used follows the Biogeoclimatic Ecosystem Classification (BEC) developed for the province by the B.C. Ministry of Forests (Pojar et al. 1987). The principles have evolved from the work of V.J. Krajina (1965,1969) and are described in Chapter 2.

The objectives of this classification are:
- to provide a framework for organizing ecological information and
- to promote further understanding of identified ecosystems and the
- to supply resource managers with a common language to describe forest
- to improve the user's ability to prescribe and monitor treatment regimes management experience about ecosystems; relationships among them; sites; and on a site-specific (ecosystem) basis.

The guide has two main goals:
- to assist the user in classifying sample sites in the field; and
- to provide interpretations for these site units that will assist the user in preparing management prescriptions.

This version of the guide results from the recent completion of an inter- regional correlation of the BEC system. The correlation project was completed to ensure the consistency and quality of the ecological information base across the province. This guide replaces the following guides for use in the Prince George Forest Region: DeLong et al. (1984) for the SBSmk1 (previously SBSe2); DeLong et al. (1984) for the SBSdw3 (previously SBSk3); DeLong et al. (1985) for the SBSmc3 (previously SBSi); DeLong et al. (1987) for the SBSdw2 (previously SBSk2); and Lewis et al. (1986) for the SBSdk (previously SBSd), SBSmc2 (previously SBSe1), and SBPSmc (previously SBSa2). Appendix 1 presents the correlation between the previous site and biogeoclimatic units and this classification. All sites slated for harvest are required by law under the Silviculture Regulations (1988) to be classified according to the biogeoclimatic classification system.

A Guide to Site Identification and Interpretation for the Kamloops Forest Region - LMH23

The field guide has eight sections. The introduction is followed by a summary of the concepts, principals, and structure of BEC (Biogeoclimatic Ecosystem Classification). Methods are outlined for identifying biogeoclimatic site units. The biogeoclimatic section contains overviews and diagnostic keys, plus tables summarizing the vegetation, environment, climate and forest productivity, of most Kamloops Forest Region biogeoclimatic units. To assist users in identifying site units, 6 pages are presented for each subzone and variant. These pages include: an overview, edatopic grid, mesoslope diagram, vegetation table, environment table, and dichotomous key. The interpretation section contains stocking standards, guidelines for assessing site sensitivity to slashburning, tables summarizing the occurrence of forest pests, and a table of recommended forage seed mixes. The appendices include: classification conversion tables, an indicator species list, and keys for determining soil textures, humus forms, landforms, bedrock geology, soil development, and soil moisture and nutrient regimes.

A Field Guide for Identification and Interpretation of Ecosystems of the Northeast Portion of the Prince George Forest Region - LMH22

This guide describes the lowland and montane ecosystems (below 1200 m in the south and 1050 m in the north) in British Columbia’s north-eastern corner. This area, north-east of the Rocky Mountains, encompasses the Alberta Plateau, Liard Plateau, and Liard Plain physiographic regions (Holland 1976). It is characterized by a northern continental climate, with very long, cold winters and short, warm summers. The landscape is a mosaic of poorly drained muskeg, mixed seral stands containing lodgepole pine and aspen, and some mature white and black spruce stands. Fires are common and the Northern Fire Ecology Project reports (Parminter 1983, 1984) describe the fires’ impact on the boreal landscape. The guide presents aids to the identification of described units, and management interpretations for each.

A Field Guide for Identification and Interpretation of Ecosystems of the Northwest Portion of the Prince George Forest Region - LMH21

This field guide describes the ecosystems of the north-west portion of the Prince George Forest Region. The area covered by the guide extends from Williston Reservoir and the Rocky Mountain Trench north of it, in the east, to the Prince George/Prince Rupert Forest Region boundary in the west, and from the base of Williston Reservoir in the south to the Regional boundary again in the north. To the north and west, the units described in this guide continue beyond the regional boundaries. The area falls within the Rocky Mountain Trench (north), and the Cassiar and Omineca mountains physiographic regions (Holland 1976). The guide presents aids to the identification of described units, and management interpretations for each.

A Field Guide for Site Identification and Interpretation for the Nelson Forest Region - LMH20

This guide presents site identification and interpretation information for forest and range ecosystems of the Nelson Forest Region. This guide replaces the Field Guide to the Identification and Interpretation of Ecosystems of the Nelson Forest Region.

A Field Guide for Identification and Interpretation of the Engelmann Spruce-Subalpine Fir Zone in the Prince Rupert Forest Region, British Columbia - LMH17  

This field guide describes ecosystem and silvicultural interpretations for the Engelmann Spruce-Subalpine Fir Zone in the Prince Rupert region concentrating on three forested subzones,

A Field Guide for Identification and Interpretation of Seral Aspen Ecosystems of the BWBSc1, Prince George Forest Region - LMH16

This field guide describes the seral aspen ecosystem units of the Murray River variant (BWBScl), of the Moist Warm Boreal White and Black Spruce zone in the Prince George Forest Region. It presents aids to the identification of these units, and management interpretations for each unit. Users of this guide must have been trained to identify vegetation and soil and site factors. Courses in identification are provided by the Prince George Regional Ecology Section. (For details, contact the Regional Ecologist.) The guide is divided into three sections: tions: Section 1 is an introduction: Section 2 describes the use of the guide; and Section 3 describes the seral ecosystem units and their management interpretations. Questions regarding the biogeoclimatic classification system in general, or the units described in this guide in particular, should be directed to: Regional Ecologist, Forest Sciences Section, B.C. Ministry of Forests and ...

A Field Guide for Identification and Interpretation of Ecosystems of the Rocky Mountain Trench, Prince George Forest Region - LMH15

This field guide describes the ecological units of the Rocky Mountain Trench, Prince George Forest Region. It presents aids to the identification of these units and management interpretations for each. Users of this guide must have been trained to identify vegetation and soil and site factors. Courses in identification are provided by the Prince George Regional Ecology Section (for details, contact the Regional Ecologist). Units are described in the biogeoclimatic classification system. The classifications derived by the six Forest Regions are now being combined and correlated to ensure that no unit is described more than once, and that similar units are grouped. 

A Field Guide for Identification and Interpretation of the Coastal Western Hemlock Zone, Northern Drier Maritime Subzone (CWHf), in the Prince Rupert Forest Region - LMH14

This guide contains information, condensed for field use, on the identification and interpretation of biogeoclimatic and ecosystematic units in the Coastal Western Hemlock Zone, Northern Drier Maritime Zone (CWHf). The area covered includes most of the low and middle elevation forests of the central part of the Kalum Timber Supply Area and some of the middle elevations of the westernmost Kispiox Timber Supply Area.

A Field Guide for Identification and Interpretation of the Interior CedarHemlock Zone, Northwestern Transitional Subzone (ICHg), in the Prince Rupert Forest Region - LMH12

This Field guide presents a summary of ecological and management information for the Interior Cedar Hemlock Zone, Northwestern Transitional Subzone (ICHg) in the Prince Rupert Forest Region. It includes brief explanations of the biogeoclimatic variants, ecosystem units, and silvicultural prescriptions. Ecological information and identification keys are provided to assist the user in determining the ecological units and making silvicultural interpretations.

A Guide to Some Common Plants of the Southern Interior of British Columbia - LMH7

This guide gives an account of forest and grassland plants which are commonly encountered in the southern interior of British Columbia * (see map). It is intended to accompany such guides as the "Identification and Interpretation of Ecosystems of the Western Kamloops Forest Region", Vol. 1 and 2 (Mitchell et al., 1981) and "Ecological Classification for the Nelson Forest Region" (Utzig et al., 1982, Second Approx.) to aid in the vegetative component of ecosystem classification. SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS This guide describes over 300 plant species which occur in the southern interior of Brítish Columbia. It is intended for use by non-professional botanists, foresters, and other resource managers, as a guide or tool to identify common plant species, and is not intended as a final word on the identification of all species described within.

Some Common Plants of the Sub-Boreal Spruce Zone - LMH6

This guide contains photographs or drawings of 129 of the most common and characteristic native plants (excluding trees) of the Sub-Boreal Spruce Biogeoclimatic Zone of British Columbia. Habitat information in the form of an edatopic grid accompanies each of these species. Nineteen groups of silhouettes composed of 95 plants are included. Forty-five of the species in the silhouette groupings are additional to those pictured in photographs or drawings. A checklist of the known flora of the zone, along with an index of common and scientific names for the species illustrated are provided. The guide is intended primarily for foresters, forest technicians and range managers.

A Guide to Plant Indicators of Moisture for Southeastern British Columbia, with Engineering Interpretations - LMH5

This guide was prepared to assist field personnel in the use of plant indicators for recognizing and evaluating soil moisture conditions. The presence of excess soil moisture is often the cause of many forest engineering problems (e.g. slumping, compaction, and windthrow). With proper planning and construction techniques such problems can be dealt with successfully. To achieve this, however, the problems must be recognized early in the planning process. At the time of field inspection, temporary seepage and seasonally high water tables are often not apparent but can be identified using plant indicators. All plants occupy a range of environmental conditions. Some species are restricted to a particular habitat while many others occupy a broad range of habitats. Certain species may be indicative of Biogeoclimatic Zones and Subzones at the broad level while others are restricted to, and thus indicative of, very specific moisture conditions within a particular Subzone.

A Guide to Some Common Plants of the Skeena Area, British Columbia - LMH4  

The prime purpose of this guide is to present a simplified account of the most common plants including bryophytes and lichens which occur in the Skeena area.

A Guide to Some Common Plants of the Kamloops Region, British Columbia - LMH3

The prime purpose of this guide is to present a simplified account of the most common plants including bryophytes and lichens which occur in the Kamloops area. 

Identification and Interpretation of Ecosystems of the Western Kamloops Forest Region - LMH2

As the demand for natural resources increases, it is imperative that resource managers be provided with adequate tools to evaluate the capabilities of the land base. Ecosystem classification provides such a tool. The ecosystem approach to land classification has the advantage of encompassing all interactions among plants, animalst and their physical environment, thus providing an ecological foundation for intensive resource management. Management to meet the objectives of maintaining or enhancing the continued supply of timber, forage, wildlife habitat and water quality and quantity. In the Kamloops Forest Region ecosystem classification consists of two integration levels: the biogeoclimatic (zones, subzones and variants) and biogeocoenotic (ecosystem associations and ecosystem types). The relationship of the two levels is illustrated in Figure 2. At the biogeoclimatic level subzones and variants have been classified and described in the field guide and also mapped at scales of 1:125,000 and 1:500,000 for the study area (Figure 1). At the biogeocoenotic level, ecosystem associations and phases have been described and presented in the guide for ready identification in the field. Interpretations for various resource uses at the ecosystem association and phase level are also included in the field guide. The field guide is designed to aid resource managers in site assessment and in prescribing suitable, ecologically based, management practices.