Biological control agents and host plants
Invasive plant species targeted in B.C. have been introduced from other continents, primarily Europe and Asia, and have no natural enemies to attack them and keep them under control. Biocontrol research and thereafter management efforts reunites these invasive plants with their natural enemies by importing agents, mainly insects, that feed on the plants from the native habitat. Release of biological control agents into British Columbia began in 1951 with the introduction of Chrysolina quadrigemina (Suffrain) and C. hyperici (Forster) to control St. John's wort (Hypericum perforatum L.) [1]. As of February 2020, B.C. has records for 87 separate species, or 89 if strains of species are considered as separate biocontrol agents, having either been purposely introduced (72) or having found their way into the province (17) to target 38 invasive plants. Establishment of the purposely introduced species in B.C. is at 74%, which is higher than the average of about 60% reported for classical invasive plant biocontrol agents released elsewhere in the world [2], and even the average of 70% recorded for agents released in western Canada [1]. In few historic occasions, and in current rare circumstances, natural predators have been able to follow their hosts into new habitats. These adventive insects are described:
References
[1] De Clerck-Floate, R. and H. Cárcamo. 2011. Biocontrol Arthropods: New Denizens of Canada's Grassland Agroecosystems. In Arthropods of Canadian Grasslands (Volume 2): Inhabitants of a Changing Landscape. Edited by K. D. Floate. Biological Survey of Canada. pp. 291-321.
[2] McFadyen, R.E.C. 1998. Biological control of weeds. Annual Review of Entomology. 43:369-393.
The table below lists invasive plant species and their biological control agents.
|
Invasive Plant |
Biocontrol Agent |
Agent Type |
First Reported / Released in B.C. |
Released in BEC Zone |
Positive Monitoring / Dispersal BEC Zone * |
Collectability ** |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
|
Black knapweed |
Seed feeding beetle (weevil) |
Imported for other Centaurea species |
None |
CWH, CDF, IDF |
Passive distribution |
|
| Bohemian knotweed (PDF, 67KB) Fallopia bohemica |
Aphalara itadori | Sap-sucking psyllid | 2014 | ICH | None | Not established |
|
Brown knapweed |
Seed feeding fly |
1986 |
None |
None |
Not established |
|
|
Bull thistle |
Larinus carlinae (PDF, 737KB) |
Seed feeding beetle (weevil) |
Adventive: Approved for Canada thistle in 1988 |
None |
BG, CDF, CWH, IDF |
Mass |
|
Bull thistle |
Seed feeding beetle (weevil) |
Imported for Nodding thistle |
IDF |
BG, CDF, CWH, IDF, PP |
Mass |
|
|
Bull thistle |
Rosette/ root crown feeding beetle (weevil) |
1991 |
CWH |
None |
Limited |
|
|
Bull thistle |
Seedhead gall-producing fly |
1973 |
BG, BWBS, CDF, CWH, ESSF, ICH, IDF, MS, PP, SBS |
CDF, CWH, ICH, IDF, MS, PP, SBS |
Mass |
|
|
Burdock |
Seed feeding moth |
Adventive |
None |
BD, IDF, MS, PP |
No federal permit |
|
|
Canada thistle |
Foliar feeding beetle |
1964 |
CDF, CWH, PP |
None |
Not established |
|
|
Canada thistle |
Foliar feeding beetle |
Adventive |
None |
BG, CDF, CWH, ICH, IDF, MS, PP |
No federal permit |
|
|
Canada thistle |
Hadroplontus litura (PDF, 798KB) |
Stem feeding beetle (weevil) |
1975 |
BG, CDF |
CDF |
Not available for general distribution |
|
Canada thistle |
Larinus carlinae (PDF, 737KB) |
Seed feeding beetle (weevil) |
Adventive; approved for release on Canada thistle in 1988 |
BG, BWBS, CDF, CWH, ESSF, ICH, IDF, MS, PP, SBS |
BG, CDF, CWH, ICH, IDF, MS, PP, SBS |
Mass |
|
Canada thistle |
Leaf and stem rust (fungus) |
Adventive |
None |
BG, CDH, CWF, IDF, SBS |
No federal permit |
|
|
Canada thistle |
Seed feeding beetle (weevil) |
Imported for Nodding thistle |
BG, CWH, IDF, MS, SBS |
CDF, CWH, IDF, MS |
Passive distribution |
|
|
Canada thistle |
Seed feeding fly |
Adventive: first report 1931 |
None |
None |
No federal permit |
|
|
Canada thistle |
Stem gall-forming fly |
1974 |
BG, BWBS, CDF, CWH, ICH, IDF, MS, PP, SBS |
BG, BWBS, CDF, CWH, ICH, IDF, PP, SBS |
Limited |
|
|
Canada thistle |
Seedhead gall-producing fly |
Imported for bull thistle |
None |
IDF, SBS |
Passive distribution |
|
|
Cypress spurge |
Root feeding beetle (flea beetle) |
Imported for leafy spurge |
IDF |
None |
Limited |
|
|
Dalmatian toadflax |
Seed feeding beetle |
Adventive |
BWBS, PP |
BG, IDF, PP |
Mass |
|
|
Dalmatian toadflax |
Foliar feeding moth |
1960s |
BG, CWH, ICH, IDF, PP |
ICH, IDF, MS, PP |
Limited |
|
|
Dalmatian toadflax |
Root feeding moth |
1991 |
BG |
None |
Not established |
|
|
Dalmatian toadflax |
Mecinus janthiniformis (PDF, 692KB) |
Stem mining beetle (weevil) |
1991 |
|
BG, CDF, CWH, ICH, IDF, MS, PP |
Mass |
|
Dalmatian toadflax |
Rhinusa antirrhini (PDF, 883KB) |
Seed feeding beetle (weevil) |
1993 |
BG, IDF, MS, PP, SBS |
BG, IDF, MS, PP |
Mass |
|
Dalmatian toadflax |
Rhinusa linariae (PDF, 769KB) |
Root feeding beetle (weevil) |
1996 |
BG |
None |
Not available for general distribution |
|
Dalmatian toadflax |
Rhinusa neta (PDF, 695KB) |
Seed feeding beetle (weevil) |
Adventive |
IDF |
BG, CWH, IDF, MS, PP |
No federal permit |
|
Diffuse knapweed |
Root feeding moth |
1982 |
BG, ICH, IDF, PP |
BG, ICH, IDF, PP |
Mass |
|
|
Diffuse knapweed |
Seed feeding fly |
Imported for spotted knapweed |
None |
BG, ICH, PP |
Not available for general distribution |
|
|
Diffuse knapweed |
Root feeding beetle (weevil) |
1987 |
BG, CDF, CWH, ICH, IDF, MS, PP |
BG, CWH, ESSF, ICH, IDF, PP |
Limited |
|
|
Diffuse knapweed |
Seed feeding beetle (weevil) |
1991 |
BG, CDF, CWH, ICH, IDF, MS, PP |
BG, CDF, CWH, ESSF, ICH, IDF, MS, PP |
Mass |
|
|
Diffuse knapweed |
Seed feeding beetle (weevil) |
1993 |
BG, CWH, ICH, IDF, MS, PP |
CDF, ICH, IDF |
Mass |
|
|
Diffuse knapweed |
Seed feeding moth |
1981 |
None |
BG |
Limited |
|
|
Diffuse knapweed |
Root feeding moth |
1982 |
BG, IDF, PP |
None |
Not established |
|
|
Diffuse knapweed |
Root feeding moth |
1986 |
BG, IDF, PP |
BG, ICH, IDF, PP |
Passive distribution |
|
|
Diffuse knapweed |
Leaf and stem rust (fungus) |
Adventive 1988 |
None |
PP |
No federal permit |
|
| Diffuse knapweed Centaurea diffusa |
Sclerotinia sclerotiorum (PDF, 475KB) | Root, leaf, stem fungus | Naturally occurring | IDF | IDF | No federal permit |
|
Diffuse knapweed |
Root feeding beetle |
1976 |
BG, CDF, ICH, IDF, PP |
BG, CDF, ICH, IDF, PP |
Mass |
|
|
Diffuse knapweed |
Gall forming nematode |
1985 |
IDF |
IDF |
Not established |
|
|
Diffuse knapweed |
Seed feeding fly |
1970 |
ICH |
BG, ICH, IDF, PP |
Mass |
|
|
Diffuse knapweed |
Seed feeding fly |
1972 |
ICH |
BG, CDF, PP |
Mass |
|
|
Field bindweed |
Aceria malherbae (PDF, 674KB) |
Leaf and bud galling mite |
1992 |
BG, IDF, PP |
BG, PP |
Not available for general distribution |
|
Field bindweed |
Charidotella sexpunctata bicolor (PDF, 687KB) |
Foliar feeding beetle |
1969 (B.C. lab study) |
CWH |
None |
No federal permit/not established |
|
Field bindweed |
Deloyala guttata (PDF, 272KB) |
Foliar feeding beetle |
1969 (B.C. lab study) |
CWH |
None |
Not established |
|
Gorse |
Foliar feeding moth |
Adventive |
None |
CDF |
No federal permit |
|
|
Hedge false bindweed |
Charidotella sexpunctata bicolor (PDF, 687KB) |
Foliar feeding beetle |
1971 |
CWH |
CWH |
No federal permit |
|
Hedge false bindweed |
Deloyala guttata (PDF, 272KB) |
Foliar feeding beetle |
1971 |
CWH |
None |
Not established |
|
Hound's tongue |
Root feeding flea beetle |
1998 |
BG, IDF, PP |
BG, IDF, PP |
Not available for general distribution |
|
|
Hound's tongue |
Mogulones crucifer (PDF, 659KB) |
Root feeding beetle (weevil) |
1997 |
BG, ICH, IDF, MS, PP |
BG, ICH, IDF, MS, PP |
Mass |
| Japanese knotweed Fallopia japonica |
Aphalara itadori | Sap-sucking psyllid | 2014 | ICH | None | Not established |
|
Kingdevil hawkweed |
Aulacidea subterminalis (PDF, 704KB) | Gall-forming wasp | 2011 | IDF | IDF | Not available for general distribution |
|
Leafy spurge |
Aphthona cyparissiae (PDF, 654KB) |
Root feeding flea beetles |
1989 |
BG, IDF, PP, SBS |
BG, IDF, PP |
Mass |
|
Leafy spurge |
Aphthona czwalinae (PDF, 598KB) |
Root feeding flea beetles |
1995 |
BG, IDF, PP |
IDF, PP |
Not available for general distribution |
|
Leafy spurge |
Root feeding flea beetle |
1990 |
BG, IDF, MS, PP |
BG, IDF, PP |
Limited |
|
| Leafy spurge Euphorbia esula |
Aphtona lacertosa (PDF, 520KB)
(mix with A. czwalinae) |
Root feeding flea beetle | 1995 | BG, IDF, PP | IDF, PP | Not available for general distribution |
|
Leafy spurge |
Root feeding flea beetle |
1986 |
BG, IDF, PP, SBS |
BG, IDF, PP, SBS |
Mass |
|
|
Leafy spurge |
Foliar feeding moth |
1966 |
IDF |
IDF, PP |
Not available for general distribution |
|
|
Leafy spurge |
Leaf tying moth |
1987 |
BG, IDF, PP |
BG, IDF, PP |
Not available for general distribution |
|
|
Leafy spurge |
Foliar feeding moth |
1994 |
PP |
None |
Not established |
|
|
Leafy spurge |
Bud gall forming midge |
1990 |
BG, IDF |
None |
Not established |
|
|
Marsh plume thistle |
Seed feeding beetle (weevil) |
Imported for nodding thistle |
ICH, SBS |
ICH, SBS |
Not available for general distribution |
|
|
Marsh plume thistle |
Seed feeding fly |
Adventive |
None |
ICH |
No federal permit |
|
|
Marsh plume thistle |
Rosette/root crown feeding beetle (weevil) |
Imported for nodding thistle |
ICH, SBS |
None |
Not established |
|
| Meadow hawkweed Pilosella caespitosa |
Cheilosia urbana (PDF, 491KB) | Root feeding hover fly | 2018 | ICH | None | Not available for general distribution |
|
Meadow knapweed |
Root feeding moth |
Imported for other Centaurea species |
CDF, CWH |
IDF |
Limited |
|
|
Meadow knapweed |
Root feeding beetle (weevil) |
Imported for other Centaurea species |
CDF, CWH |
None |
Limited |
|
|
Meadow knapweed |
Seed feeding beetle (weevil) |
Imported for other Centaurea species |
CDF, CWH, ICH |
CDF, CWH, ICH, IDF |
Mass |
|
|
Meadow knapweed |
Seed feeding moth |
Imported for other Centaurea species |
None |
ICH, IDF |
Limited |
|
|
Meadow knapweed |
Seed feeding fly |
Imported for other Centaurea species |
None |
CWH |
Passive distribution |
|
|
Meadow knapweed |
Seed feeding fly |
Imported for other Centaurea species |
None |
ICH, IDF |
Passive distribution |
|
|
Mouse-ear hawkweed (PDF, 675KB) |
Aulacidea subterminalis (PDF, 704KB) | Gall forming wasp | 2011 | IDF | IDF | Not available for general distribution |
|
Mullein |
Rhinusa tetra (PDF, 586KB) |
Seed and foliar feeding weevil |
Adventive |
None |
BD, ICH, IDF, PP |
No federal permit |
|
Nodding thistle |
Foliar feeding beetle |
Adventive |
None |
IDF |
No federal permit |
|
|
Nodding thistle |
Larinus carlinae (PDF, 737KB) (previously L. planus) |
Seed feeding beetle (weevil) |
Adventive: approved for Canada thistle (1988) |
None |
IDF, PP |
Mass |
|
Nodding thistle |
Leaf and stem rust (fungus) |
Adventive |
None |
BG, IDF |
No federal permit |
|
|
Nodding thistle |
Seed feeding beetle (weevil) |
1979 |
BG, ESSF, ICH, IDF, PP |
IDF, PP |
Mass |
|
|
Nodding thistle |
Rosette/root crown feeding beetle (weevil) |
1979 |
BG, IDF, PP |
BG, IDF, PP |
Limited |
|
|
Nodding thistle |
Seed feeding fly |
1991 |
None |
None |
Not established |
|
|
Orange hawkweed |
Gall forming wasp |
2011 |
IDF |
IDF |
Not available for general distribution |
|
|
Orange hawkweed |
Root feeding hover fly |
2017 |
ICH |
None |
Not available for general distribution |
|
|
Perennial sow thistle |
Leaf gall forming fly |
1984 |
SBS |
None |
Not established |
|
|
Plumeless thistle |
Foliar feeding beetle |
Adventive |
None |
BG, PP |
No federal permit |
|
|
Plumeless thistle |
(previously L. planus)
|
Seed feeding beetle (weevil) |
Adventive: approved on Canada thistle (1988) |
None |
ICH, IDF, PP |
Mass |
|
Plumeless thistle |
Seed feeding beetle (weevil) |
Imported for nodding thistle |
ICH, IDF |
BG, ICH, IDF, PP |
Mass |
|
|
Plumeless thistle |
Rosette/ root crown feeding beetle (weevil) |
1975 |
BG, IDF, PP |
BG, ICH, IDF, PP |
Limited |
|
|
Plumeless thistle |
Seed feeding fly |
1991 |
ICH |
None |
Not established |
|
|
Puncturevine |
Microlarinus lareynii (PDF, 529KB) |
Seed feeding beetles (weevils) |
1986 |
BG |
None |
Not established |
|
Purple loosestrife |
Foliar feeding beetle |
1993 |
BG, CDF, CWH, ICH, IDF, PP, SBPS, SBS |
BG, CDF, CWH, ICH, PP, SBS |
Limited |
|
|
Purple loosestrife |
Foliar feeding beetle |
1994 |
BG, CWH, PP |
BG, CWH, PP |
Limited |
|
|
Purple loosestrife |
Galerucella calmariensis (PDF, 798KB) |
Foliar feeding beetle |
1995 |
CDF |
CDF |
Limited |
|
Purple loosestrife |
Root feeding beetle (weevil) |
1994 |
CDF |
CDF |
Not available for general distribution |
|
| Rush skeletonweed Chondrilla juncea |
Aceria chondrillae (PDF, 606KB) (previously Eriophyes chondrillae) |
Gall forming mite | 1993 | ICH, IDF | ICH, IDF | Mass |
|
Rush skeletonweed |
Root feeding moth |
2007 |
IDF |
None |
Not established |
|
|
Rush skeletonweed |
Leaf and stem rust (fungus) |
Adventive |
IDF |
ICH, IDF |
No federal permit |
|
|
Russian knapweed |
Leaf and stem rust (fungus) |
Adventive |
BG, PP |
BG, PP |
No federal permit |
|
| Russian knapweed Acroptilon repens |
Aulacidea acroptilonica (PDF, 575KB) | Gall forming wasp | 2015 | BG, PP | PP | Not available for general distribution |
|
Russian knapweed |
Gall forming nematode |
1985 |
BG, PP |
None |
Not established |
|
|
Scentless chamomile |
Stem mining beetle (weevil) |
1997 |
BWBS, IDF |
BWBS |
Not available for general distribution |
|
|
Scentless chamomile |
Omphalapion hookeri (PDF, 797KB) |
Seedhead feeding beetle (weevil) |
1992 |
BWBS, ICH, IDF, MS, SBPS, SBS |
BWBS, ICH, IDF, MS, SBS |
Mass |
|
Scentless chamomile |
Gall forming midge |
1999 |
BWBS, ICH, IDF, MS, SBS |
BWBS, ICH, IDF, MS, SBS |
Not available for general distribution |
|
|
Scotch broom |
Gall mite |
Adventive |
None |
CDF, CWH |
No federal permit |
|
|
Scotch broom |
Foliar feeding moth |
Adventive |
None |
CDF |
No federal permit |
|
|
Scotch broom |
Seed feeding beetle (weevil) |
Adventive |
ICH |
CDF, CWH, ICH |
No federal permit |
|
|
Scotch broom |
Seed feeding weevil |
Adventive |
ICH |
CDF, CWH, ICH |
No federal permit |
|
|
Short-fringed knapweed |
Seed feeding beetle (weevil) |
Imported for other Centaurea species |
None |
IDF |
Mass |
|
|
Short-fringed knapweed |
Seed feeding fly |
Imported for other Centaurea species |
None |
IDF |
Mass |
|
|
Spotted knapweed |
Root feeding moth |
1982 |
BG, CDF, CMA, CWH, ESSF, ICH, IDF, IMH, MS, PP, SBS |
BG, CDF, CMA, CWH, ESSF, ICH, IDF, MS, PP, SBS |
Mass |
|
|
Spotted knapweed |
Seed feeding fly |
1991 |
BG, CWH, ICH, IDF, SBS |
BG, ICH, IDF, MS, PP |
Not available for general distribution |
|
|
Spotted knapweed |
Root feeding beetle (weevil) |
1987 |
BG, BWBS, CDF, CWH, ESSF, ICH, IDF, MS, PP, SBS |
BG, CDF, CMA, CWH, ESSF, ICH, IDF, MS, PP, SBS |
Limited |
|
|
Spotted knapweed |
Seed feeding beetle (weevil) |
1991 |
BG, CDF, CWH, ESSF, ICH, IDF, MS, PP, SBS |
BG, CDF, CWH, ICH, IDF, MS, PP, SBS |
Mass |
|
|
Spotted knapweed |
Seed feeding beetle (weevil) |
1993 |
BG, CDF, CWH, ESSF, ICH, IDF, MS, PP, SBS |
BG, CDF, CWH, ESSF, ICH, IDF, MS, PP, SBS |
Mass |
|
|
Spotted knapweed |
Seed feeding moth |
1973 |
CDF, CWH, ICH, IDF, MS, SBS |
BG, CDF, CWH, ICH, IDF, PP |
Limited |
|
|
Spotted knapweed |
Root feeding moth |
1982 |
None |
None |
Not established |
|
|
Spotted knapweed |
Root feeding moth |
1987 |
ICH |
ICH |
Passive distribution |
|
|
Spotted knapweed |
Leaf and stem rust (fungus) |
Adventive |
None |
None |
No federal permit |
|
| Spotted knapweed Centaurea biebersteinii |
Sclerotinia sclerotiorum (PDF, 475KB) | Root, leaf and stem fungus | Naturally occurring | IDF | IDF | No federal permit |
|
Spotted knapweed |
Root feeding beetle |
1987 |
CDF, ICH, IDF |
BG, CWH, ESSF, ICH, IDF, PP |
Mass |
|
|
Spotted knapweed |
Seed feeding fly |
1991 |
BG, ICH, IDF, PP |
ICH |
Not available for general distribution |
|
|
Spotted knapweed |
Seed feeding fly |
1970 |
CDF |
BG, CDF, CWH, ICH, IDF, PP |
Mass |
|
|
Spotted knapweed |
Seed feeding fly |
1972 |
None |
BG, CDF, CWH, ICH, IDF, PP |
Mass |
|
|
St. John's wort |
Root feeding beetle |
1955 |
CDF, ESSF, ICH, IDF |
ESSF, ICH, IDF, PP |
Not available for general distribution |
|
|
St. John's wort |
Sap sucking aphid |
1979 |
CWH, ESSF, ICH, IDF, PP |
ESSF, ICH, IDF, PP |
Not available for general distribution |
|
|
St. John's wort |
Aplocera plagiata (PDF, 876KB) |
Foliar feeding moth |
1967 |
CDF, CWH, ESSF, ICH, IDF, MS, SBS |
CDF, CWH, ICH, IDF, MS, PP |
Limited |
|
St. John's wort |
Foliar feeding beetle |
1951 |
CWH, ICH, IDF, MS, PP |
ESSF, IDF, MS |
Limited |
|
|
St. John's wort |
Chrysolina quadrigemina (PDF, 732KB) |
Foliar feeding beetle |
1952 |
CWH, ICH, IDF, MS |
CDF, CWH, ESSF, IDF, MS |
Mass |
|
St. John's wort |
Foliar feeding beetle |
1957 |
ICH, PP |
None |
Not established |
|
|
St. John's wort |
Gall forming midge |
1955 |
ICH |
None |
Not established |
|
|
Tansy ragwort |
Botanophila seneciella (PDF, 721KB) |
Seed feeding fly |
1968 |
CWH |
CDF, CWH, IDF |
Passive distribution |
|
Tansy ragwort |
Root crown feeding moth |
1990 |
CDF, CWH, IDF |
CDF, CWH |
Limited |
|
|
Tansy ragwort |
Root feeding flea beetle |
1971 |
None |
None |
Not established |
|
|
Tansy ragwort |
Longitarsus gracilis |
Root feeding flea beetle |
Adventive, 2005 |
IDF |
IDF |
No federal permit |
|
Tansy ragwort |
Longitarsus jacobaeae (PDF, 809KB) |
Root feeding flea beetle |
1971 |
CDF, CWH, IDF |
CDF, CWH |
Mass |
|
Tansy ragwort |
Longitarsus jacobaeae (PDF, 916KB) |
Root feeding flea beetle |
2011 |
IDF |
None |
Not available for general distribution |
|
Tansy ragwort |
Foliar feeding moth |
1962 |
CDF, CWH, IDF |
CDF, CWH, IDF |
Mass |
|
|
Whiplash hawkweed |
Gall forming wasp |
2011 |
ICH, IDF, SBS |
ICH |
Not available for general distribution |
|
|
Yellow/ Common toadflax |
Seed feeding beetle |
Adventive |
None |
CWH, ICH, IDF, MS, PP, SBS |
Mass |
|
|
Yellow/ Common toadflax |
Foliar feeding moth |
1960s (on dalmatian) |
BG, ICH, IDF, SBS |
BG, ICH, IDF, PP |
Limited |
|
|
Yellow/ Common toadflax |
Root feeding moth |
1992 |
BG |
None |
Not established |
|
|
Yellow/ Common toadflax |
Root feeding moth |
1992 |
BG, IDF |
None |
Not established | |
|
Yellow/ Common toadflax |
Stem mining beetle (weevil) |
Moved from Dalmatian to yellow toadflax |
|
IDF |
Not established |
|
|
Yellow/ Common toadflax |
Rhinusa antirrhini (PDF, 883KB) |
Seed feeding beetle (weevil) |
Adventive |
None |
CWH, ICH, IDF, MS, PP, SBS |
Passive distribution |
|
Yellow/ Common toadflax |
Rhinusa linariae (PDF, 769KB) |
Root feeding beetle (weevil) |
1997 |
BG, ICH, IDF, MS |
IDF |
Not available for general distribution |
|
Yellow/ Common toadflax |
Rhinusa neta (PDF, 695KB) |
Seed feeding beetle (weevil) |
Adventive |
None |
IDF, PP |
No federal permit |
|
Yellow/ Common toadflax |
Stem galling weevil |
2014 |
ICH, MS, PP, SBS |
MS, PP, SBS |
Not available for general distribution |
* The monitoring/dispersal Biogeoclimatic Ecosystem Classification (BEC) zones listed as positive for biocontrol agent survival include those where monitoring has been performed and the agent has been found. This information does not necessarily preclude the possibility of the biocontrol agents establishing in additional BEC zones.
**The categories and their definitions for the 'collectability' of biocontrol agents in B.C. are as follows:
- No federal permit: Host-specificity tests were not performed and a federal permit from the Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) was not obtained to import these agents into Canada. These agents are typically adventive. For more information see the Adventive Biocontrol Agents document and the text included on the bioagent page to determine whether the agent may/should be collected and redistributed
- Not established: Repeated monitoring has revealed no sustained population of a released agent
- Not available for general distribution: Agents that have been released, but are still under study in development as treatment tools. Historically, these agents were described as ‘primary’ in B.C.
- Limited: Agents that are regularly establishing and exist as treatment tools but for which collection numbers are low, typically in the hundreds for any given site in a season. Historically, these agents could be described as either ‘secondary’ or ‘tertiary’
- Mass: Agents that are present and exist as treatment tools and for which collectable numbers are typically plentiful, in the thousands, for any given site in a season. Historically, these agents could be described as either ‘secondary’ or ‘tertiary’
- Passive distribution: Agents that are difficult to collect because of their biological traits, or they exist in low densities and therefore are left to self-distribute on their target invasive plant. Note: agents that become wide-spread due to collection and redistribution efforts may thereafter be left to passively redistribute further. Historically, these agents would often be described as ‘tertiary’
